寻求美国本土印地安人的历史!寻求关于Native American 英文的,急用~

寻求美国本土印地安人的历史!寻求关于Native American 英文的,急用~
寻求美国本土印地安人的历史!
寻求关于Native American 英文的,急用~

寻求美国本土印地安人的历史!寻求关于Native American 英文的,急用~
LONG BEFORE the white man set foot on American soil, the American Indians, or rather the Native Americans, had been living in America. When the Europeans came here, there were probably about 10 million Indians populating America north of present-day Mexico. And they had been living in America for quite some time. It is believed that the first Native Americans arrived during the last ice-age, approximately 20,000 - 30,000 years ago through a land-bridge across the Bering Sound, from northeastern Siberia into Alaska. The oldest documented Indian cultures in North America are Sandia (15000 BC), Clovis (12000 BC) and Folsom (8000 BC)
Although it is believed that the Indians originated in Asia, few if any of them came from India. The name "Indian" was first applied to them by Christopher Columbus, who believed mistakenly that the mainland and islands of America were part of the Indies, in Asia.
So, when the Europeans started to arrive in the 16th- and 17th-century they were met by Native Americans, and enthusiastically so. The Natives regarded their white-complexioned visitors as something of a marvel, not only for their outlandish dress and beards and winged ships but even more for their wonderful technology - steel knives and swords, fire-belching arquebus and cannon, mirrors, hawkbells and earrings, copper and brass kettles, and so on.
However, conflicts eventually arose. As a starter, the arriving Europeans seemed attuned to another world, they appeared to be oblivious to the rhythms and spirit of nature. Nature to the Europeans - and the Indians detected this - was something of an obstacle, even an enemy. It was also a commodity: A forest was so many board feet of timber, a beaver colony so many pelts, a herd of buffalo so many robes and tongues. Even the Indians themselves were a resource - souls ripe for the Jesuit, Dominican, or Puritan plucking.
It was the Europeans' cultural arrogance, coupled with their materialistic view of the land and its animal and plant beings, that the Indians found repellent. Europeans, in sum, were regarded as something mechanical - soulless creatures who wielded diabolically ingenious tools and weapons to accomplish mad ends.
The Europeans brought with them not only a desire and will to conquer the new continent for all its material richness, but they also brought with them diseases that hit the Indians hard. Conflicts developed between the Native Americans and the Invaders, the latter arriving in overwhelming numbers, as many "as the stars in heaven". The Europeans were accustomed to own land and laid claim to it while they considered the Indians to be nomads with no interest to claim land ownership. The conflicts led to the Indian Wars, the Indian Removal Act empowered by President Andrew Jackson in 1830 and other acts instituted by the Europeans in order to accomplish their objectives, as they viewed them at the time. In these wars the Indian tribes were at a great disadvantage because of their modest numbers, nomadic life, lack of advanced weapons, and unwillingness to cooperate, even in their own defense.
The end of the wars more or less coincided with the end of the 19th century. The last major war was not really a war, it was a massacre in 1890 where Indian warriors, women, and children were slaughtered by U.S. cavalrymen at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, in a final spasm of ferocity.
A stupefying record of greed and treachery, of heroism and pain, had come to an end, a record forever staining the immense history of the westward movement, which in its drama and tragedy is also distinctively and unforgettably American.
Undersigned being an European emigrating to the U.S. during the latter part of the 20th century, cannot fully comprehend what happened during the past few centuries. I am sure many descendants of emigrants as well as many Native Americans feel the same way. We are all a product of our time and the circumstances prevalent at the time. If I had lived with the Europeans in America during the 19th century, would I have embraced what was going on then? If I had lived with the Germans in the 1930s and 40s, would I have embraced what was going on in Germany then? If I had lived in Scandinavia during medieval time witnessing the horrors of slavery and killings, would I have embraced what was going on then? (The Nordic countries practiced slavery during the middle ages, a master could for any reason kill his slave. Abolished in 1335)
These are hard questions for anyone to honestly answer. It is easy to toss around opinions now, at the end of the 20th century being conveniently removed from circumstances and conditions in a distant and foreign time.
This website will try to present as a true and accurate picture as possible of the past, but not dwell on it. However, it is important for one sole reason and that is to learn from the past and move into the 21st century as better human beings. After all, we are ONE people under God and we can only look back to the past as what it is - history. Now we attempt to cooperate to the best of our ability in the present and we are looking forward to the future for a better world. Let us once again cross the Bering land-bridge and sail the Mayflower, but this time together for the common goal of building up mutual respect and trust.
The best way to accomplish this goal, we believe, is for this website to contribute by presenting links to the most sincere, factual, reliable and honest web-sites around on this subject and let interested parties actively participate. We will try to cover all aspects of our common history in regards to the history and development of the west. You will find many Native American web-sites with an abundance of facts and sources of information here. Please join in if you think you have something to contribute!
希望这段介绍您能满意!

美国大陆的土著居民。属蒙古人种：暗褐色的皮肤，长而黑的头发，突出的颧骨，扁平的面部。据美国历史学家塞缪尔·埃利奥特·莫利森和亨利·斯蒂尔·康马杰等研究，距今2.5—4万年前，蒙古人从北极圈以南的迭日涅角，艰苦跋涉了至少3000英里，渡过现今的白令海峡，继续前进到了今天美国本土最西端的阿拉斯加的西沃德半岛。这就是今天美国印第安人的始祖。从那时以后，他们在北美这片土地上辛勤劳动，繁衍生息，以自己的劳动...

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美国大陆的土著居民。属蒙古人种：暗褐色的皮肤，长而黑的头发，突出的颧骨，扁平的面部。据美国历史学家塞缪尔·埃利奥特·莫利森和亨利·斯蒂尔·康马杰等研究，距今2.5—4万年前，蒙古人从北极圈以南的迭日涅角，艰苦跋涉了至少3000英里，渡过现今的白令海峡，继续前进到了今天美国本土最西端的阿拉斯加的西沃德半岛。这就是今天美国印第安人的始祖。从那时以后，他们在北美这片土地上辛勤劳动，繁衍生息，以自己的劳动和智慧创造了美洲古代历史和文化。如今，在美国到处都能找到印第安人的文化遗迹。美国的许多地名，如马萨诸塞、俄亥俄、密歇根、堪萨斯、爱达荷等州名都来自印第安语。1492年，克里斯托弗·哥伦布到达美洲大陆时，误认为是东印度群岛，便把他在岛上见到的第一个人称为印度人(Indian)，这就是英语中印第安人的来源。那时美国的印第安人约有100万人。自16世纪中叶开始，欧洲的殖民者侵入美洲，给印第安人带来了灾难，殖民者对印第安人进行惨无人道的虐杀。美国独立以后，随着资本主义的迅速发展，开拓疆土，把印第安人驱逐出祖居地。1830年，美国政府通过《印第安人迁移法案》，规定东部的印第安人要全部迁往密西西比河以西的为他们划定的保留地中去，实行种族隔离和迫害。这些“印第安人保留地”绝大部分是偏僻贫瘠的山地或沙漠地带。一个叫切罗基的部族，在被迫迁往“印第安准州”(即今俄克拉何马州)的迁徙中，历时3—5个月，约4000人丧生，占该部族的人口的25％。这一惨剧后来被称为“血泪的审判”。印第安人长期遭到屠杀、围攻、驱赶、被迫迁徙等迫害，人数急剧减少。到20世纪初期，只剩下30多万人。直到1924年，美国国会才通过了《印第安人公民资格法》，宣布凡在美国境内出生的人均为美国公民。1934年，美国又根据罗斯福总统的“新政”通过了《印第安人重新组织法》，允许印第安人建立自己的政府，不再分配保留地的土地，停止强迫印第安人放弃传统文化和宗教的政策，印第安人的境况才有所改善。60年代，当黑人开展争取民权斗争后，许多印第安人也团结起来，成立了全国部族首领协会、全美印第安人大会以及全美印第安青年理事会等组织，开展斗争，维护自己的权益。现在，美国的印第安人有100多万，分别属于490多个部族，绝大多数居住在各州的267个印第安人保留地，其中半数以上居住在密西西比河以西地区；最大的部族有10万人，最小的部族只有17人。越来越多的部族成立了自治会，管理保留地内的学校、警察、公路及公共事务，出现了许多管理人才。有些部族已经成功地在保留地上建立了一些颇为盈利的工业和服务业。一些印第安人从保留地迁到城市，找到了报酬不菲的工作。但是总的来说，印第安人仍然是美国少数民族中境况最差的。印第安人的失业率、在贫困线以下的人数、死亡率均比其他美国人高。
不好意思只找到中文的。

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网上有好多的！ 你用"native American" history, "first nations" etc.之类的词找。。。
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http://www.tolatsga.org/Compacts.html
http://www.lib.washington.edu/subje...

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网上有好多的！ 你用"native American" history, "first nations" etc.之类的词找。。。
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http://www.tolatsga.org/Compacts.html
http://www.lib.washington.edu/subject/History/tm/native.html
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Native Americans in the United States (also known as Indians, American Indians, First Americans, Indigenous Peoples, Aboriginal Peoples, Aboriginal Americans, Amerindians, Amerinds, or Original Americans) are the indigenous peoples within the territory that is now encompassed by the continental United States and their descendants in modern times. This collective term encompasses a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of them still enduring as political communities. A comprehensive tribal list or "Classification of Native Americans" is impossible to assemble.
The U.S. states and several of the inhabited insular areas which do not form part of the continental U.S. territory also contain indigenous groups. Some of these other indigenous peoples in the United States are not generally designated as "Native Americans". This includes groups such as the Alaska Natives commonly known as the Eskimo (i.e., the Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, etc.), Native Hawaiians (also known as Kanaka Māoli and Kanaka 'Oiwi), and various Pacific Islander peoples such as the Chamorros.
Early history
See also: archaeology of the Americas, models of migration to the New World, and indigenous people of the Americas for more detailed history and migration theories.
It is worth noting at this juncture that most aboriginal peoples or "Indians" of North and South America reject theories about their "arrival" to the western hemisphere. They maintain instead that they have always lived here. Any theory that holds otherwise is likely to be perceived by most aboriginal peoples as irrelevant; by some, as racist; and by many, as merely a politically-motivated effort to classify aboriginal American peoples ultimately as immigrants - on the theory that, if they're "really" immigrants just like everybody who came after 1492, they cannot have any special historical claims in regard to the land.
While this position may not be a scientific perspective on the part of aboriginal Americans, it has had, and continues to have, decidedly important political ramifications.
Ethnically based explanation for Ojibwe Peoples
It is important to note as a continuation of the synopsis up above that the migrations from Siberia are discounted by a portion of North American tribes and especially Ojibwe based tribes due to the conflict with ancient religious and still living theories. This is and was fostered due to a massive divide between the scientific community who have focused on earlier primary and authoritative works that have attributed polytheistic beliefs to Aboriginal peoples in North America and to Aboriginals who have never believed in polytheism. Forcing old world conceptions like animal worship and geographical deification onto Aboriginal beliefs have discounted earlier religious beliefs as having no historical relevance thus leading to current major theories that say no tribes descend from the East as many Aboriginal religions and/or possible myths dictate.
This type of framework has in the past and still helps to provide a lack of research into a possibility of eastern migration by comparing Aboriginals to other "nomadic" societies for example and then directly assuming a lack of religious evolution, whether this is relevant or not is in question. Commentators have revised their analysis of religious beliefs into the present but the underlying undercurrent has remained that very little research is done on analysing other versions of migration. Mitochondrial DNA analysis has helped push this back even further while not taking into account the increased social relations between groups in North America and the slowly increasing mixing of disparate groups of ethnically defined people. If the same amount of resources were poured into eastern migration theories it could be hoped that more results tending to agree with Aboriginal beliefs would come to fruition but this remains to be seen.
Political reasons have stemmed from the earlier migration theories promulgated by scientists due to early ethnological analysis and sight based research assuming that because certain tribes had resemblances to Siberian tribes that this must have provided the early common base for Aboriginal migration into North America. This may or may not have or have had a racist reason and is not important for this discussion. It remains to be said though that research on these topics follows from past research with anything else classified as at best pseudo-science or mythological based research. More research really needs to be done before any conclusions can be made especially since the people in question a lot of the time still exist with wholly contradictory visions of their past in their minds.
(*Personal Note by author. I will provide more information as to where the primary sources of current research stem from however as far as being able to post an authoritative work on current North American Ojibwe religion and antecedent sources using Ojibwe based sources this may prove ineffectual. Currently the Ojibwes in Canada practice their beliefs and still talk to each other about their origins; a body of research is growing and I intend to post this as soon as I can get to it. Currently Patricia McGuire of the University of Saskatchewan is pioneering a subjective historical project that may prove useful to providing the rigid scientific and analytical tools that may allow some thought and research about eastern origins to develop. Currently her masters thesis deals with the subjective analysis of Aboriginal culture as it relates to current objective theories. Her PH.D. thesis should be completed this year and provides the first framework to validate subjective knowledge about Aboriginal culture by an Aboriginal Person. March 21. 2006)
The Bering Strait Land Bridge theory
Based on anthropological and genetic evidence, most scientists believe that most Native Americans descend from people who migrated from Siberia across the Bering Land Bridge between 15,000 and 9,000 BC, where the Bering Strait is today.[1] The exact epoch and route is still a matter of controversy.
The primarily Siberian origin is widely regarded as the most likely, consisting of at least three separate migrations from Siberia to the Americas.[citation needed]
The first wave, during the late Pleistocene, would be the forerunners of the Clovis and Folsom cultures, both hunting the abundant large mammals of the virgin continent. This wave eventually spread over the entire hemisphere, as far south as Tierra del Fuego.[2]
The second migration brought the ancestors of the Na-Dene peoples. They lived in Alaska and western Canada, but some migrated as far south as the Pacific Northwestern U.S. and the American Southwest, and would be ancestral to the Dene, Apaches and Navajos. This group reached North America between 6,000 to 4,000 BC.[3]
The third wave brought the ancestors of the Inuit, Yupik and Aleut peoples. They may have come by sea over the Bering Strait, after the land bridge had disappeared. They are believed to have reached Alaska as late as 1,000 BC.
In recent years, molecular genetics studies based upon mitochondrial DNA shows that as many as four distinct migrations from Asia. These studies also provide surprising evidence of smaller-scale, contemporaneous migrations from Europe, possibly by peoples who had adopted a lifestyle resembling that of Inuits and Yupiks during the last ice age. [citation needed]
A recent study in 2004 has claimed evidence which, if accepted, would extensively revise the timeline of human habitation in the Americas.[4] At the Topper site on the Savannah River near Allendale, South Carolina, a team led by University of South Carolina archaeologist Dr. Albert Goodyear reported recovering what they claimed to be stone tool artifacts from strata considerably below that of Clovis culture remains. Using stratigraphy and charcoal material found with the artifacts, radiocarbon dating performed by the University of California at Irvine Laboratory dated these remains to be at least 50,000 years old.[5] This would indicate the presence of humans well before the termination of the last glaciation. Other archaeologists have disputed the dating methodology employed, and have also suggested that these "artifacts" are naturally-formed, rather than of human manufacture. Other recent claims for pre-Clovis artifacts have similarly been made in some South American sites. The notion of pre-Clovis habitation continues to be a subject of scholarly debate, and the issue has not yet been satisfactorily resolved.
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Settling down
By 1500 BCE, many tribes had settled into small indigenous communities. In several regions, temporary hunter-gatherer settlements were transformed into small permanent or semi-permanent settlements and villages, frequently established in regions, such as river valleys, which were conducive to the raising of crops. Several such societies and communities, over time, intensified this practice of established settlements, and grew to support sizeable and concentrated populations. Examples include those of the Mississippian culture and the Pueblo peoples (Anasazi). They constructed large and complex earthworks, and were particularly skilled at small stone sculptures and engravings on shell and copper. Agriculture was independently developed in what is now the eastern United States by 2500 BCE, based on the domestication of indigenous sunflower, squash and goosefoot. Eventually, in the last eleven hundred years, the Mexican crops of corn and beans were adapted to the shorter summers of eastern North American and replaced the indigenous crops.
The large pueblos, or villages, built on top of rocky talleland or mesas of Southwest around 700 CE, were a complicated aggregate of family apartments. Towns were one large complex of buildings, with multistoried houses arranged around courtyards or plazas. Wooden ladders provided access to upper levels. Under the courtyards, subterranean kivas, or ceremonial structures, served as meeting rooms for religious societies.
While exhibiting widely divergent social, cultural, and artistic expressions, all Native American groups worked with materials available to them and employed social arrangements that augmented their means of subsistence and survival.
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European colonization
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Initial impacts
The European colonization of the Americas changed the lives and cultures of the Native Americans. In the 15th to 19th century, their populations were ravaged by displacement, disease, warfare with the Europeans, and enslavement.
The first Native American group encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the 250,000 to 1,000,000 Island Arawaks (more properly called the Taino) of Haiti Quisqueya, Cubanacan (Cuba) and Boriquen Puerto Rico, were enslaved. It is said that only 500 survived by the year 1550, and the group was considered extinct before 1650. Yet DNA studies show that the genetic contribution of the Taino to that region continues, and the mitochondrial DNA studies of the Taino are said to show relationships to the Northern Indigenous Nations, such as Inuit (Eskimo) and others.[6]
In the 15th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. Ironically, the horse had originally evolved in the Americas, but the early American horses were game for early human hunters, and went extinct about 7,000 BC, just after the end of the last ice age. The re-introduction of the horse had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America. This new mode of travel made it possible for some tribes to greatly expand their territories, exchange goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game.
Europeans also brought diseases, agai